NCERT Explained: Class IX History, Chapter 5 - Pastoralists in the Modern World

Introduction to the Topic

When we study history, we often focus on settled civilizations, great empires, and the development of agriculture and industry. However, there is a significant portion of the human population whose history is written in movement rather than in brick and stone. These are the pastoralists—nomadic people who survive by rearing cattle, sheep, goats, and camels. In Class IX History, Chapter 5, 'Pastoralists in the Modern World,' we explore the lives of these mobile communities in India and Africa.

Understanding pastoralism is crucial because it teaches us about environmental adaptation and sustainability. Pastoralists do not move randomly; their journeys are carefully timed seasonal cycles that allow the land to recover and provide the best resources for their herds. This chapter examines how these ancient lifestyles faced unprecedented challenges during the colonial era and how they continue to adapt in the contemporary world.

Key Concepts Explained

1. Pastoral Nomads and Their Movements in India

In India, pastoralist communities are found across various landscapes, from the high Himalayas to the dry deserts of Rajasthan. Their life is defined by transhumance—the seasonal movement of livestock between mountain and lowland pastures.

• The Mountains: In Jammu and Kashmir, the Gujjar Bakarwals are great herders of goat and sheep. They move between their winter grounds in the low hills of the Siwalik range and their summer grazing grounds in the high alpine meadows (Bugyals). Similarly, the Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh follow a similar cycle, spending winters in the scrub forests of the low hills and summers in Lahaul and Spiti.
• The Plateaus and Plains: In the semi-arid central plateau of Maharashtra, the Dhangars represent a significant pastoral community. During the monsoon, they stay in the central plateau. By October, when the harvest is over, they move west to the Konkan region. This is a mutually beneficial relationship: their cattle fertilize the Konkan rice fields with manure, and the cattle get to feed on the stubble left after the harvest.
• The Deserts: In the deserts of Rajasthan, the Raikas combine cultivation with pastoralism. During the monsoons, they stay in their home villages. By October, as the grazing grounds dry up, they move out in search of new pastures, returning only during the next monsoon.

2. Why Do Pastoralists Move?

Movement is not a sign of 'backwardness' but a sophisticated survival strategy. By moving, pastoralists:

• Allow the vegetation in one area to regenerate, preventing overgrazing.
• Ensure a continuous supply of fodder and water for their animals.
• Avoid \textreme weather conditions, such as the harsh Himalayan winters or the peak summer droughts in the deserts.
• Manure the fields of farmers along their routes, creating an organic exchange between nomadic and settled societies.

3. Colonial Rule and Its Impact

The lives of pastoralists changed dramatically under British colonial rule. The colonial state viewed mobile people with suspicion and saw pastoralism as an 'unproductive' use of land. Several laws were enacted that crippled their lifestyle:

• Waste Land Rules: The British wanted to turn all 'uncultivated' land into agricultural land to increase land revenue and produce raw materials like cotton and jute. They labeled grazing lands as 'Waste Lands' and granted them to settled farmers.
• Forest Acts: Huge tracts of forests were declared 'Reserved' or 'Protected.' Pastoralists were suddenly banned from entering the forests where they had grazed their cattle for centuries. Even in protected forests, their movements were severely restricted by permits.
• Criminal Tribes Act (1871): The British found it difficult to monitor and tax mobile people. Consequently, they classified many nomadic communities as 'Criminal Tribes' by nature, forcing them to live in notified settlements and restricting their movement.
• Grazing Tax: To expand its revenue base, the colonial government introduced a tax on every animal grazing in the pastures. This put an immense financial burden on the herders.

4. How Pastoralists Coped with Changes

Pastoralists did not just give up; they adapted to these harsh laws in several ways. Some reduced the number of cattle in their herds because there wasn't enough pasture. Others discovered new grazing routes when the old ones were closed by new international borders (like the partition of India and Pakistan). The richer pastoralists began buying land and settling down, while the poorer ones often lost their cattle and became agricultural laborers.

5. Pastoralism in Africa: The Maasai Story

Africa is home to half of the world’s pastoral population. The Maasai of East Africa (Kenya and Tanzania) provide a striking example of how colonialism disrupted traditional life. Before colonial rule, Maasailand stretched over a vast area. In the late 19th century, European powers divided the region, pushing the Maasai into small, dry 'reserves' while the best grazing lands were taken for 'white' settlers or turned into national parks like the Serengeti and Maasai Mara. This loss of land made the Maasai vulnerable to droughts, as they could no longer move to greener pastures when the rains failed.

Summary & Key Takeaways

• Adaptation: Pastoralism is a rational response to the environment, characterized by seasonal movement (transhumance).
• Mutual Benefit: Nomads and settled farmers often share a symbiotic relationship involving the exchange of goods and services (e.g., manure for grain).
• Colonial Disruption: Colonial policies like Waste Land Rules and Forest Acts aimed to restrict mobility to maximize revenue and control, which devastated pastoral economies.
• Resilience: Despite the loss of grazing lands and the imposition of taxes, pastoralist communities have survived by changing their herd compositions, altering their routes, and diversifying their income.
• Environmental Impact: Modern boundaries and the disappearance of the 'commons' have made pastoral life more difficult, yet their methods remain some of the most sustainable ways to use arid and mountainous lands.