NCERT Explained: Class IX History, Chapter 2 - Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution

Introduction to the Topic

The 19th and early 20th centuries were periods of profound transformation in world history. Following the shockwaves of the French Revolution, which introduced the powerful ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity, the entire landscape of European politics began to shift. This chapter, Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution, explores how the quest for social justice and economic equality led to the birth of a new political ideology: Socialism. While the French Revolution opened up the possibility of changing how society was structured, it was in Russia that these ideas took their most dramatic and concrete form. Through this study, we understand how the Russian Revolution was not just a local event but a global phenomenon that challenged the foundations of capitalism and monarchical rule, ultimately shaping the 20th century.

Key Concepts Explained

To understand this complex period, we must first look at the different groups that emerged in Europe, each proposing a different path for the future of society.

1. The Three Political Traditions: Liberals, Radicals, and Conservatives

After the French Revolution, people began to debate how society should be reorganized. Three main viewpoints emerged:

• Liberals: They wanted a nation which tolerated all religions. They opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers and argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government. However, they were not 'democrats' in the modern sense; they did not believe in Universal Adult Franchise (the right of every citizen to vote) and felt that only men of property should have the right to vote.
• Radicals: Unlike liberals, radicals wanted a government based on the majority of a country’s population. They supported women’s right to vote (the suffragette movement) and opposed the privileges of great landowners and wealthy factory owners. They were not against the existence of private property but disliked the concentration of property in a few hands.
• Conservatives: Initially, conservatives had been opposed to the idea of change. However, after the French Revolution, they accepted that some change was inevitable but believed that the past had to be respected and that change had to be brought about through a slow process.

2. Industrial Society and Social Change

The Industrial Revolution brought about massive changes. New cities came up, and railways expanded. However, industrialization also brought problems: long working hours, low wages, and poor housing and sanitation. Since most industries were the property of individuals, liberals and radicals (who were often property owners themselves) began to look for ways to improve the health and education of the workforce. They believed that if the poor could work and the middle classes were educated, the economy would flourish.

3. The Coming of Socialism to Europe

By the mid-19th century, socialism became a well-known body of ideas. Socialists were against private property and saw it as the root of all social ills. Why? Because while property provided employment, it only benefitted the owners, not the workers whose labor made the property productive. Socialists wanted a society where property was controlled socially rather than individually.

Key thinkers included Robert Owen, who sought to build a cooperative community called New Harmony in Indiana (USA), and Louis Blanc, who wanted the government to encourage cooperatives. However, the most influential ideas came from Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marx argued that industrial society was 'capitalist.' Capitalists owned the machinery and factories, but the profit was produced by workers. Marx believed that to free themselves from exploitation, workers had to overthrow capitalism and establish a 'communist society' where all property was socially controlled.

4. The Russian Empire in 1914

In 1914, Tsar Nicholas II ruled Russia and its vast empire. Russia was an autocracy, meaning the Tsar was not subject to a parliament. The empire was huge, stretching from the Baltic to the Pacific, and included diverse religions like Orthodox Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism. Economically, Russia was behind Western Europe; about 85% of the population were agriculturists. Industry was found in pockets, mainly in St. Petersburg and Moscow.

5. The 1905 Revolution and 'Bloody Sunday'

1904 was a particularly bad year for Russian workers. Prices of essential goods rose so quickly that real wages declined by 20%. When four members of the Assembly of Russian Workers were dismissed, over 110,000 workers in St. Petersburg went on strike, demanding a reduction in the working day to eight hours and an increase in wages.

The procession, led by Father Gapon, was attacked by the police and the Cossacks when it reached the Winter Palace. Over 100 workers were killed. This incident, known as Bloody Sunday, started a series of events that became known as the 1905 Revolution. To quiet the unrest, the Tsar allowed the creation of an elected consultative Parliament, or Duma, though he soon sought to control it.

6. The First World War and the Fall of the Tsar

The First World War (1914-1918) was the final blow to the Tsarist regime. Russia’s armies suffered heavy defeats against Germany and Austria. By 1917, there were 7 million casualties. As the army retreated, they destroyed crops and buildings to prevent the enemy from living off the land, which led to over 3 million refugees in Russia. The war also had a severe impact on industry and food supply. By the winter of 1917, riots at bread shops were common.

7. The February Revolution in Petrograd

In February 1917, food shortages were deeply felt in the workers' quarters. On February 22, a lockout took place at a factory, and the next day, workers in fifty factories called a strike in sympathy. Many of these strikes were led by women. When the Tsar suspended the Duma, politicians, workers, and even soldiers joined the protests. The Tsar abdicated on March 2. A Provisional Government was formed by Soviet and Duma leaders to run the country.

8. The October Revolution

The Provisional Government, led by Kerensky, saw its power decline as the influence of the Bolsheviks (a socialist party) grew. Vladimir Lenin, the Bolshevik leader, returned from exile in April 1917. He issued his 'April Theses', demanding three things: the war be brought to a close, land be transferred to the peasants, and banks be nationalized.

As the conflict between the Provisional Government and the Bolsheviks grew, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power. On October 24, 1917, the uprising began. By nightfall, the city was under the committee’s control and the ministers had surrendered. The Bolsheviks were now in power.

9. What Changed After October?

The Bolsheviks were totally opposed to private property. Most industry and banks were nationalized in November 1917. Land was declared social property, and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility. In cities, the Bolsheviks enforced the partition of large houses according to family requirements. They renamed the Bolshevik Party the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik).

However, this led to a Civil War. The 'Whites' (pro-Tsarists) and 'Greens' (Socialist Revolutionaries) fought the 'Reds' (Bolsheviks). The Whites were supported by French, American, British, and Japanese troops who were worried about the spread of socialism. By 1920, the Bolsheviks controlled most of the former Russian empire.

10. Stalinism and Collectivization

After Lenin’s death, Joseph Stalin became the leader. By 1927-1928, the towns in Soviet Russia were facing an acute problem of grain supplies. Stalin believed that rich peasants (Kulaks) and traders were holding stocks in the hope of higher prices. To solve this, he introduced Collectivization. From 1929, the Party forced all peasants to cultivate in collective farms (Kolkhoz). Most of the land and implements were transferred to the ownership of the collective farm. Those who resisted were severely punished or deported. Despite collectivization, production did not increase immediately, and a terrible famine occurred between 1930 and 1933, killing over 4 million people.

Summary & Key Takeaways

• The Rise of Ideologies: The period saw a clash between Liberals, Radicals, and Conservatives, with Socialism emerging as a powerful critique of Capitalism.
• The Russian Revolution: This was actually two events—the February Revolution that ended the Monarchy and the October Revolution that brought the Bolsheviks to power.
• Lenin’s Leadership: His 'April Theses' provided the blueprint for the first socialist state, focusing on land, peace, and bread.
• Impact of WWI: The war acted as a catalyst, weakening the Tsar’s authority and destroying the Russian economy.
• Global Influence: The Russian Revolution inspired people globally, leading to the formation of communist parties in many countries (including India) and popularizing the idea of a planned economy.
• Stalin’s Era: While Stalin transformed the USSR into an industrial power through Five-Year Plans, it came at a high cost of human rights and the forced collectivization of agriculture.