NCERT Explained: Class XII History, Theme 4 - Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments

Introduction to the Topic

The mid-first millennium BCE is often regarded as a significant turning point in world history. This era witnessed the emergence of several influential thinkers across the globe, such as Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in China, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle in Greece, and Mahavira and Gautama Buddha in India. These thinkers sought to understand the mysteries of existence and the relationship between human beings and the cosmic order. In India, this period was characterized by the growth of new kingdoms and cities, and the socio-economic life of people was changing in various ways. Chapter 4 of the Class XII History NCERT, titled "Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings," takes us through this fascinating journey of cultural development between 600 BCE and 600 CE. We will explore how these diverse ideas were preserved in texts and manifested in magnificent architecture and sculpture, most notably the Sanchi Stupa.

Key Concepts Explained

1. The Sacrificial Tradition and New Questions

Before the emergence of Buddhism and Jainism, the Vedic tradition was dominant. The Rigveda, compiled between 1500 and 1000 BCE, contains hymns in praise of various deities like Agni (fire), Indra (warrior god), and Soma (a plant from which a special drink was prepared). These hymns were chanted when sacrifices were performed, where people prayed for cattle, sons, good health, and long life. Initially, sacrifices were performed collectively, but later, some were performed by the heads of households for the well-being of the family. More elaborate sacrifices, such as the Rajasuya and Ashvamedha, were performed by chiefs and kings who depended on Brahmana priests to conduct the rituals.

However, many people were beginning to question these traditions. Debates took place in kutagarashala (literally, a hut with a pointed roof) or in groves where travelling mendicants halted. Thinkers like those mentioned in the Upanishads were curious about the meaning of life, the possibility of life after death, and rebirth. Was rebirth due to past actions? Such issues were hotly debated. They emphasized the importance of Atman (the individual soul) and Brahman (the ultimate reality).

2. The Message of Mahavira (Jainism)

The basic philosophy of the Jainas was already in existence before Vardhamana, who came to be known as Mahavira, was born in the 6th century BCE. According to Jaina tradition, Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara (literally, those who guide men and women across the river of existence). The most vital idea in Jainism is that the entire world is animated; even stones, rocks, and water have life. Non-injury to living beings, especially to humans, animals, plants, and insects, is central to Jaina philosophy. In fact, the principle of Ahimsa (non-violence) left a deep mark on Indian thinking as a whole.

Jaina teachings state that the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through Karma. Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of Karma. This can be achieved only by renouncing the world; therefore, monastic existence is a necessary condition of salvation. Jaina monks and nuns took five vows: to abstain from killing, stealing, and lying; to observe celibacy; and to abstain from possessing property.

3. The Buddha and the Quest for Enlightenment

One of the most influential teachers of the time was the Buddha. Over the centuries, his message spread across the subcontinent and beyond—through Central Asia to China, Korea, Japan, and through Sri Lanka to Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia. Siddhartha, as the Buddha was named at birth, was the son of a chief of the Sakya clan. He had a sheltered upbringing but was deeply moved by the sight of an old man, a sick man, and a corpse. He realized that the decay and destruction of the human body was inevitable. He also saw a homeless mendicant who seemed to have found peace. Siddhartha decided to leave his palace to seek his own path to enlightenment.

After various experiments with different forms of meditation and self-mortification, he finally attained enlightenment while meditating under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya. From then on, he was known as the Buddha (the Enlightened One). For the rest of his life, he taught Dhamma (the path of righteous living). The Buddha’s teachings were based on the idea that the world is anicca (transient/constantly changing) and anatta (soulless), as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it. Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence. By following the Middle Path between severe penance and self-indulgence, human beings can rise above these worldly troubles.

4. The Sangha and Buddhist Texts

The Buddha founded a Sangha, an organization of monks who became teachers of Dhamma. These monks (bhikkhus) lived a simple life, possessing only the essential requisites for survival, such as a bowl to receive food once a day from the laity. Initially, only men were allowed into the Sangha, but later, women were also admitted. The Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami, was the first woman to be ordained as a bhikkhuni. Many women who entered the Sangha became teachers of Dhamma and came to be known as theris (respected women who had attained liberation).

The Buddha’s teachings were oral and were later compiled by his disciples at Vesali. These compilations are known as the Tripitaka (literally, the Three Baskets):

• Vinaya Pitaka: Rules and regulations for those who joined the Sangha.
• Sutta Pitaka: The Buddha's actual teachings.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka: Philosophical matters.

5. Stupas: The Architecture of Devotion

Buddhist texts mention that the Buddha’s relics (bodily remains or objects he used) were buried in mounds known as Stupas. The tradition of erecting stupas may have been pre-Buddhist, but they came to be associated with Buddhism as they contained relics of the Buddha. Inscriptions found on the railings and pillars of stupas record donations made for building and decorating them. Donations were made by kings (like the Satavahanas), guilds (like the ivory workers), and hundreds of ordinary men and women.

The structure of a stupa is symbolic. It consists of a semi-circular mound of earth called anda. Above the anda was the harmika, a balcony-like structure that represented the abode of the gods. Arising from the harmika was a mast called the yashti, often surmounted by a chhatri (umbrella). Around the mound was a railing, separating the sacred space from the secular world. The Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh is one of the best-preserved examples, largely due to the efforts of the Begums of Bhopal, who provided funds for its preservation and a museum.

6. Sculpture and Stories in Stone

The sculptures at Sanchi and other sites were not just decorative; they told stories. Many scenes depicted in the sculptures were drawn from the Jatakas (stories of the Buddha's previous births). For instance, a common motif is that of a woman swinging from the edge of a gateway, holding a tree. This is the Shalabhanjika, a symbol of auspiciousness and fertility. Other motifs include animals like elephants (signifying strength and wisdom), horses, monkeys, and cattle.

Interestingly, early Buddhist sculptors did not show the Buddha in human form. Instead, they used symbols to indicate his presence. For example, the empty seat symbolized the meditation of the Buddha, and the stupa represented the Mahaparinibbana (his passing away). The wheel stood for the first sermon of the Buddha delivered at Sarnath. Gradually, however, human figures of the Buddha began to be made, particularly in the Mathura and Gandhara schools of art.

7. The Growth of Puranic Hinduism

While Buddhism and Jainism were flourishing, there were also developments in what we now call Hinduism. This period saw the rise of the Vaishnava and Shaiva traditions. In Vaishnavism, Vishnu was worshipped as the principal deity, often through his ten avatars (incarnations) who were believed to have descended to earth to save the world from disorder. In Shaivism, Shiva was symbolized by the linga, though he was also represented in human form.

This era also saw the construction of the earliest Hindu temples. Initially, these were small, square rooms called the garbhagriha, where the image of the deity was placed. A tall structure, known as the shikhara, was later built over the central shrine. Artificial caves were also hollowed out of rocks to serve as temples, such as the magnificent Kailashnatha temple at Ellora, which was carved out of a single piece of rock.

Summary & Key Takeaways

• A Turning Point: The mid-first millennium BCE was a period of intense intellectual inquiry and the emergence of new religions like Jainism and Buddhism.
• Jainism: Focused on Ahimsa (non-violence) and the idea that all elements of nature possess life. It emphasized the five vows for monks and nuns.
• Buddhism: Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, it emphasized the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path (Middle Way) to reach Nirvana.
• Architecture: Stupas (like Sanchi) were built to house relics of the Buddha. They evolved from simple mounds to elaborate structures with carved gateways (toranas).
• Religious Evolution: Early Buddhism used symbols (wheel, tree) instead of idols, while Puranic Hinduism saw the rise of Bhakti, avatars, and temple architecture.
• Preservation: Cultural heritage survives through a combination of local patronage (like the Begums of Bhopal), archaeological conservation, and the study of ancient texts.