Introduction to the Topic

Welcome to NCERT Explained! In this post, we explore Class VII History, Chapter 3 - The Delhi Sultans. In our previous studies, we learned about various kings and kingdoms that emerged across the Indian subcontinent. Today, we turn our attention to the heart of medieval political power: Delhi. For the first time in Indian history, a capital city in the central plains became the seat of an empire that stretched across large parts of the subcontinent. The rulers of this vast empire are known as the Delhi Sultans. This chapter takes us on a fascinating journey through nearly three centuries of dynastic rule, administrative innovations, and architectural marvels that shaped medieval India.

Key Concepts Explained

To understand the period of the Delhi Sultanate, we must break down the core themes into digestible historical segments. Let us explore the dynasties, how they gathered information, their administrative control, and the socio-political dynamics of the time.

1. The Rulers of Delhi (The Five Dynasties)

Between the 12th and 15th centuries, Delhi saw the rise and fall of several ruling families, collectively referred to as the Delhi Sultanate. Historians often use the Persian term Tawarikh (plural of Tarikh), written by learned authors like secretaries, administrators, and poets, to understand this period. The five major dynasties that ruled during this era are:

  • The Early Turkic Rulers (1206-1290): Often mislabeled as the 'Slave Dynasty', featuring prominent figures like Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, and Sultan Raziyya. Notably, Raziyya Sultan ascended the throne in 1236, though her reign was short-lived due to opposition against a female ruler.
  • The Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320): Known for bold military expansions and rigorous economic market controls under Ala-ud-din Khalji.
  • The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414): Famous for ambitious, sometimes controversial projects under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, such as shifting the capital and introducing token currency.
  • The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451): Followed the Tughlaqs, ruling a significantly diminished territory.
  • The Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526): An Afghan dynasty that held power until the advent of the Mughals under Babur in the First Battle of Panipat (1526).

2. Finding Out about the Delhi Sultans

How do we know so much about these rulers? Historians rely heavily on inscriptions, coins, and architecture. However, the most vital sources are Tawarikh. These were written in Persian, the administrative language of the Sultanate. The authors of these texts lived in cities, mostly Delhi, and rarely in the countryside. They wrote histories to advise rulers on the ideal governance based on birthright and gender distinctions. For example, in 1236, Sultan Raziyya's accession was praised by chronicler Minhaj-i Siraj, who recognized her abilities, yet he was uncomfortable with a queen ruling because it went against social norms of the time.

3. From Town to Empire: The Expansion of the Sultanate

In the early 13th century, the control of the Delhi Sultans rarely went beyond heavily fortified towns occupied by garrisons. The Sultans rarely controlled the hinterlands (the lands adjacent to a city or port that supply it with goods and services) and were often dependent on tribute or plunder. Control eventually expanded during the reigns of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, Ala-ud-din Khalji, and Muhammad bin Tughlaq. This expansion happened in two phases:

  • The Internal Frontier: Aimed at consolidating the hinterlands of the Ganga-Doab region. Forests were cleared, hunter-gatherers and pastoralists were expelled, and land was given to peasants to promote agriculture. Fortress towns and mosques were built to protect trade routes and control regional areas.
  • The External Frontier: Military expeditions into southern India, spearheaded by commanders like Malik Kafur during Ala-ud-din Khalji's reign, brought vast wealth, elephants, horses, and slaves back to Delhi.

4. Administration and Consolidation

Controlling a vast subcontinent required effective administration. The Sultans appointed military commanders as governors of territories of varying sizes, known as Iqtas, and the holders of these offices were called Iqtadars or Muqtis. The duty of the muqtis was to lead military campaigns and maintain law and order in their iqtas. In exchange, they collected revenues as salary and paid their soldiers from these revenues. To check their power, control over muqtis was made hereditary, and their offices were non-transferable, with accountants appointed by the state to audit the revenue collected.

Summary & Key Takeaways

As we conclude this chapter, let us review the essential points every student should keep in mind:

  • The Delhi Sultanate comprises five successive dynasties ruling from Delhi between the 13th and 16th centuries: Early Turkic, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi.
  • Tawarikh (histories written in Persian) are crucial textual sources providing insights into the administrative thoughts and societal norms of the period.
  • Expansion of the Sultanate occurred both internally (clearing forests, agrarian development) and \texternally (military campaigns into the south).
  • The administrative system relied heavily on iqtas, governed by muqtis, ensuring both revenue collection and military preparedness across the empire.
  • Despite challenges of distance, rebellion, and communication, the Delhi Sultans successfully laid down the political foundations for an integrated North Indian empire.